TOEFL GRAMMAR

 

A.    Basic Sentence Structure

There are five basic patterns around which most English sentences are built.* They are as follows:

S-V		Subject-Verb		John sleeps.
				Jill is eating.
				Jack will arrive next week.
S-V-O		Subject-Verb-Object		I like rice.
				She loves her job.
				He's eating an orange.
S-V-Adj		Subject-Verb-Adjective		He is funny.
				The workers are lazy.
				Karen seems angry.
S-V-Adv		Subject-Verb-Adverb		Jim is here.
				Flowers are everywhere.
				No one was there.
S-V-N		Subject-Verb-Noun		She is my mom.
				The men are doctors.
		Mr. Jones is the teacher.

At the heart of every English sentence is the Subject-Verb relationship. Other elements can be added to make a sentence more interesting, but they are not essential to its formation.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V pattern.

She sleeps.		Core sentence
She sleeps soundly.		An adverb is added to describe how she sleeps.
She sleeps on the sofa.		A prepositional phrase is added to tell where she sleeps.
She sleeps every afternoon.		A time expression is added to tell when she sleeps.
She is sleeping right now.		Verb tense is changed, but S-V relationship remains the same.
Mary will sleep later.		Subject is named and another tense is used.
The dogs are sleeping in the garage.		New subject may require a different form of the verb.

Note: Any action verb can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-O pattern.

They like rice.		Core sentence
The people like rice.		Specific subject
The friendly people like rice.		Subject modified with an adjective
The people in the restaurant like rice.		Subject modified with an adjective
The people like boiled rice.		Object modified with an adjective
The people like hot, white rice.		Object modified with more than one adjective

Note: Only transitive action verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-Adj pattern.

He is fine.		Basic sentence with "be" verb
He seems happy.		Basic sentence with another linking verb
Jordan is tall, dark and handsome.		Series of adjectives
He appears very comfortable.		Adverb or intensifier added
George became sick last night.		Different tense and linking verb

Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-Adv pattern.

The teacher is here.		Basic sentence
The teacher is over there.		Using an adverb phrase
Teachers are everywhere.		Plural noun and verb used
The teachers are in the lobby.		Prepositional phrase functioning as adverb

Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.

The following sentences are examples of the S-V-N pattern.

The man is a doctor.		Basic sentence
The women are doctors.		Using plural noun and verb
My father is a nice guy.		Modified subject and complement
My grandparents are senior citizens.		Modified plural subject and complement

Note: Only linking verbs can be used with this sentence pattern.
*Other, less common structures are dealt with in another unit.

B. Parallel structure

Your writing will be clearer if you use parallel construction. When you list items they should be in similar form.

Here are some examples of correct parallel structure.

The new player is strong, clever and intelligent. (Here the items listed are all adjectives – strong, clever and intelligent)

My mother likes knitting, painting and playing cards. (Here the items listed are all gerunds – knitting, painting and playing.)

Exercise

Identify and correct the mistakes in parallel structure in the following sentences.

1. I swept the yard, weeded the garden and was washing the clothes.

2. James decided to get up early, practice some yoga and ate healthy foods.

3. Although I trained hard, practiced every day and was listening to my trainer, I never won a tournament.

4. I wish he would listen to me, take my advice and stopped smoking.

5. He is an articulate, intelligent and thoughtfully speaker.

Answers

1. I swept the yard, weeded the garden and washed the clothes.

2. James decided to get up early, practice some yoga and eat healthy foods.

3. Although I trained hard, practiced every day and listened to my trainer, I never won a tournament.

4. I wish he would listen to me, take my advice and stop smoking.

5. He is an articulate, intelligent and thoughtful speaker.

C.    Comparative Adjectives

When talking about the two objects, we can compare and see the differences as well similarities between the two objects. Maybe it has the same thing on one side and the difference on the other side. To compare the difference between the two objects we use comparative adjectives. Comparison is only using comparative adjectives to compare between two objects only.

There are two ways to create a comparative adjectives:
1. Adding the suffix-er (short adjectives)
2. Adding more prefix (long adjectives)

Addition of a suffix rule for short adjectives:

        ·  Generally only added adjective-er, for example: older, smaller, richer, etc.

        · If the ending-e, just add r, for example: later, nicer, etc.

        · If the ending in a consonant-vowel-consonant, the final consonant plus, then plus-er, for example: bigger, hotter, etc.

        · If the ending-y, then y changed to i then added er, for example: happier, Earlier, busier, heavier, etc.

For long adjectives, the rule only adds more words only on adjectives, for example: expensive to be more expensive, more beautiful to be beautiful, and so on. Some adjectives have irregular shapes, such as good - better, well (healthy) - better, bad - worse, far - farther / further, etc.

Adjectives with two syllables can use-er or more: quiet - quieter / more quiet, clever - cleverer / more clever, narrow - narrower / more narrow, simple - Simpler / more simple. Comparative adjectives are not only used to compare two different objects, but can also be used to compare the same object that points to itself, and the object is not to say, as one example sentence above: I want to have a more powerful computer.

Adjectives with two syllables

If the adjective has two or more syllables, we add more before the adjective. example:

        · This book is more expensive than that book.

        · This picture is more beautiful.

However, there are many exceptions to the rule of one / two syllables it.
Some words with 2 syllables have properties similar to words that have 1 syllable. example:

        · This is Easier – True

        · This is more easy - not really

        ·  This is Simpler – True

        · This is more simple - not true

 

And some adjectives can use both comparative form. example:

        · Clever - cleverer - more clever: These are all correct

        · Quiet - quieter - more quiet: These are all correct.

No exceptions can be learned through the rules, the best way to learn is to learn it one by one.

Example problems :

1.      The Nile river is longer than the Amazon.

2.      I’m taller than Yuri but shorter than Miko.

3.      They’re more handsome than us, but we’re smarter than them.

4.      This book bag is more expensive than that bag.

5.      This newspaper is better than that newspaper.

 

 

D.    Conditional Clauses

Conditional Sentences are also known as Conditional Clauses or If Clauses. They are used to express that the action in the main clause (without if) can only take place if a certain condition (in the clause with if) is fulfilled. There are three types of Conditional Sentences.

Conditional Sentence Type 1

→ It is possible and also very likely that the condition will be fulfilled.
Form: if + Simple Present, will-Future

Example: If I find her address, I’ll send her an invitation.

Conditional Sentence Type 2

→ It is possible but very unlikely, that the condition will be fulfilled.
Form: if + Simple Past, Conditional I (= would + Infinitive)

Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation.

Conditional Sentence Type 3

→ It is impossible that the condition will be fulfilled because it refers to the past.
Form: if + Past Perfect, Conditional II (= would + have + Past Participle)

Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation.

 

E. Noun Clauses

Noun clause is a clause (ie subject and verb) is used as a noun. Noun clause in the sentence is generally used as a subject and an object sentences.
Noun clause can be preceded by:

        · Question word or relative pronoun question either single word or phrase:
 Single question word (ie when, how, what, ect.).
o Question word + determiner / noun / adjective / adverb.
o Question word + infinitive.

        ·  CONJUNCTION (i.e. Whether and if).

        ·  That or the fact that.
So the pattern of the noun clause is:

 

Question word/conjunction/that + subject + verb +  ..…

Noun clause used as an object He said something. S V O He said that he was sick. Noun clause used as a subject Something is your business. S V Whatever you do is your business. Someone is still in the cafeteria. S V Whoever ate my lunch is still in the cafeteria.

What did he say? What is your business? Who is in the cafeteria?

The subordinator may take the "subject" or "object" position in a noun clause.

 

Note the usage of the following:

Henry loves Mary. (S V O) Mary loves Jim. (S V O) The person who(m) Lee loves is a secret. The person who loves Tim is a secret. Who(m) Henry loves is a secret. Who loves Tim is a secret.

Mary is the "object" of the sentence. Mary is the "subject" of the sentence. Relative clause (subordinator in obj. position) Relative clause (subordinator in subj. position) Noun clause (subordinator in obj. position) Noun clause (subordinator in subj. position)

Subordinators which are used in noun clauses:

(Some of these words are also used in Grammar: Relative Clauses and Grammar: Wh - Questions.)

that what who whoever whatever whether

which where when how why if

how much how many how long how far how often whose

Remember to preserve word order in noun clauses:

I don't know who he is.

Whoever she is is not important.

Whatever is in the box is a mystery.

Can you tell me what he is doing?

She doesn't undestand why he is leaving.

I wonder how much that costs.

Do you know how long it will take?

A.  Noun clauses beginning with Question words

In How to Address Questions already discussed about the use of question words either in making information questions and in making embedded questions. Embedded questions are noun clause. In this section are given additional examples to refresh your memory.

 

 

Refresh your memory.

            1.      Single question words.

example:

1.      Where she is now is still unknown.

2.      When they arrive is still uncertain.

3.      I know what you did last summer and I still know what you did last summer are two Hollywood movies starred by Jennifer Love Hewitt. Note: in this sentence, noun clause what you did last summer became the object of I know and I still know, and once combined with: are two Hollywood movies starred by Jennifer Love Hewitt, a compound subject of the sentence.

Noun clause can be placed at the beginning of the sentence (as subject) or as an object. If you want to change the position of the subject noun clause object sentence into a sentence, it is usually necessary pronoun or a slight modification of the word. The above example becomes:

1.      It is still unknown where she is now.

2.      Do you know when they arrive?

3.      Two Hollywood movies starred by Jennifer Love Hewitt are I know what you did last summer and I still know what you did last summer. Because the title of movies, noun clause what you did last summer does not need to be rotated position.

NOTE :

a.       Clause question preceded by certain words (ie when, Whenever, where) can also function as an adverbial clause.

example:

1.      I was reading a book when the phone rang.

2.      I went to where I and my ex-girlfriend had been last weekend.

3.      Suddenly I get nausea Whenever I see his face. (nausea = nausea / vomiting willing).

b.      Clause is preceded by the words specific question (ie who, Whom, Whose + noun) can also function as an adjective clause. In this case, the question is actually a relative pronoun. Well, do not be too confused by the term. Important that you understand the pattern / structure of the sentence. But, if you are curious, please read the adjective clauses topic.

example:

1.      I think you Whom Mr. Dodi was looking for. (I guess you (people) who pack Dodi were looking for earlier).

2.      Mr. Dodi, who is a teacher, was looking for you at school.

3.      Rommy, Whose book was stolen last week, just bought another new book yesterday.

So, how to tell if the noun clause, adverbial clause, or adjective clause? The answer is simple. Noun clause can be replaced by the pronoun it, while the adverbial clause and adjective clause no. Noun clause answers the question what and who / Whom; adverbial clause answering questions when, where, how (including how much, how often, ect), and why. Adjective clause (ie in the form of an adjective clause) describes noun, and relative pronounnya (ie who, that, ect.) In Indonesian means "the".

 

2. Question words + ever / soever

Except how, at the end of question words can be added ever or soever Whenever = whensoever, whatever = whatsoever, and so on. Meaning here ever or soever the same, ie only / no, stay combined with a question word in front of him. Meanwhile, how + ever be however (ie adverb or also called a transition word meaning yet / even if it is) is not included in this category.

Example :

1.     We will accept whatever you want us to do. (We will accept / do whatever you want us to do).

2.      Whoever can melt her feeling is a very lucky guy. (melt = melt). Be careful: guy (pronounced gae) = men, while gay (read gei) = fag = fag.

3.      She has agreed to wherever the man would bring her. (He has agreed to take him wherever he goes). Note: in speaking (informal), preposition (in this case to, etc.) Is usually placed at the end of the sentence. She has agreed wherever the man would bring her to.

 

3. Question nouns + words

      Question words + nouns are often used, among others: what time (time), what day   (what day), what time (time), what kind (what kind), what type (what type), Whose + nouns (ie Whose car, Whose book, ect.), and so on.

Example:

1.      I can not remember what day we will take the exam.

2.      As long as I am faithful, she does not care what type of family I come from. (faithful = loyal).

3.      Do you know what time it is?

4.      I do not know Whose car is parked in front of my house.

 

4. Question adjectives + words

+ Question words are frequently used adjectives such as: how long (how long / long),   how far (how     much), how old (how old / Age), ect.

Example :

1.      Man! She still looks young. Do you know how old she actually is?

2.      I am lost. Could you tell me how far it is from here to the post office?

3.      What a jerk. He did not even ask how long I had been waiting for him.

 

 

5. Question words + determiners.

Determiners + Question words often used is: how many (how many) and how much (how many). Remember: how many followed by plural nouns, whereas how much followed by uncountable nouns.

Example :

1.       Is there any correlation between how good he or she is in English and how many books he or she has?

2.       How much will improve your English skills is determined by how hard you practice.

 

6. Question words + adverbs

+ Question words are frequently used adverbs are: how Often (how often), how many times (how many times) ect.

Example :

1.      Often no matter how I practice, my English still sucks. (No matter how many times I practice, my english is bad). Suck (informal verb) = bad / not good; suck another meaning: suck.

2.       I do not want my parents to know how many times I have left school early. (leave school early = absent).

 

7. Question words + infinitives

If the question words immediately followed by infinitives, the invinitives implies shouldatau can / could. Note that the subject after question words omitted.

Example :

1.       She did not know what to do = She did not know what she should do. (He does not know what he should do).

2.      Please tell me how to get the train station from here = Please tell me how I can get the train station from here.

3.      We have not Decided when to go to the beach = We have not Decided when we should go to the beach.

4.      Mary told us where to find her = Marry told us where we could find her.

 

B. Noun clauses beginning with Whether / if

Whether can be followed by OR / NOT can not; meaning of the sentence is usually the same although the OR / NOT is not mentioned (it depends on the context of the sentence).

Example:

1.      Whether I am not sure she is coming or not = I am not sure Whether or not she is coming = I am not sure Whether she is coming. (I'm not sure whether he will come or not).

2.      We can not decide Whether we should go out or stay home. = We can not decide Whether to go or (to) stay home. Note, infinitives can also be used after Whether.

3.      Whether I am not sure I should take economics or law after I graduate from high school. (I'm not sure if I should take some Economic Law after graduating from high school or later).

4.      If you take economics, I will take economics. On the other hand, if you take law, I will take law too.

 

 

 

 

 

C. Noun clauses beginning with that / the fact that

Here, that means that, while the fact that means the fact that. Whereas, that in    adjective clauses mean that.

example:

1.       That she has had a PhD degree at the age of 20 surprises a lot of people = It surprises a lot of people that she has had a PhD degree at the age of 20.

2.      It is the fact that the world is round = the fact that the world is round is well known.

3.      It was obvious that she was very sick = The fact that she was very sick was obvious.

4.      It seems that it is going to rain soon.

Example Problem:

1.      The teacher heard who answered the question.

analysis:

        ·  The first sentence "The teacher heard" is true because the subject teacher and heard verbnya. The second sentence "Who answered the phoned" is also true because who serves as a subject and answered as verbnya. Who at the same time also serves as connetor.

        ·  So the above sentence is correct.

2.      I do not understand it went wrong.

Analysis:

        · The first sentence "I do not understand" is correct because I do not understand the subject and verb. The second sentence "it went wrong" is wrong because there is no connector at once subject.

        · correct sentence should be: I do not understand what went wrong.What subject and also serves as a connector, while his went as a verb.

3.      Of the three movies, I can not decide is the best roomates.
Analysis:

        ·  In the first sentence, I can not decide as Subject and as a verb. In the second sentence, roomates as well as the subject and the connector is a verb.

4.      She did not remember who in her class.

Analysis:

        ·  In the first sentence, as She did not remember the subject and the verb. Dikalimat second, who as a connector and also subject but no verb.

        ·  correct sentence should ................. who was in her class.

5.      No one is sure what did it happen in front of the building.
Analysis:

        · The first sentence is correct because No one is subject and is is a verb, but the second sentence is wrong because there was and it did. Did and it seharusnay in delete and verb "happen" became form of yesteryear "happened".

        ·  So the correct sentence should be: ....... what happened in front of the building.

Sumber :

1.      http://fikarzone.wordpress.com/2012/04/06/5-of-toefl-structure-test/

2.      http://www.englishpractice.com/grammar/parallel-structure/

3.      http://www.eslgold.com/grammar/basic_sentence.html

4.      http://www.eslgold.com/grammar/noun_clauses.html

5.      http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/conditional-sentences

http://andyhermawan90.blogspot.com/2013/05/toefl-grammar_24.html